The broadcast nature of communication in transmission media has driven the rise of network coding’s popularity in wireless networks. Numerous benefits arise from employing network coding in multi-hop wireless networks, including enhanced throughput, reduced energy consumption, and decreased end-to-end delay. These advantages are a direct outcome of the minimized transmission count. This paper introduces a comprehensive framework to employ network coding in these networks. It refines decision-making at coding and decoding nodes simultaneously. The coding-nodes employ optimal stopping theory to find (...) optimal moments for packet transmission. Meanwhile, the decoding-nodes dynamically decide, through SMDP (Semi Markov Decision Process) problem formulation, whether to conserve energy by deactivating radio units or to stay active for improved coding by overhearing packets. The proposed framework, named ENCODE, enables nodes to learn how and when to use network coding over time. Simulation results compare its performance with existing approaches. Our simulation results shed new light on when and how to use network coding in wireless multi-hop networks more effectively. (shrink)

In IEEE 802.15.4 standard for low-power low-range wireless communications, only one channel is employed for transmission which can result in increased energy consumption, high network delay and poor packet delivery ratio (PDR). In the subsequent IEEE 802.15.4-2015 standard, a Time-slotted Channel Hopping (TSCH) mechanism has been developed which allows for a periodic yet fixed frequency hopping pattern over 16 different channels. Unfortunately, however, most of these channels are susceptible to high-power coexisting Wi-Fi signal interference and to possibly some other ISM-band (...) transmissions. This interference manifests itself in the form of the presence/absence of other devices with either or both static and dynamic channel selection policies. In order to isolate channels with undesirable conditions, blacklisting mechanisms are defined to adapt the channel hopping process. However, the existing solutions which form blacklists unrealistically assume that the statistical model of the external interference remains fixed, and do not vary over time. In this paper, we realistically assume that the impact of external interferes on 802.15.4 may generally follow a non-stationary pattern, and accordingly formulate the adaptive channel hopping problem as a Dynamic Multi-Armed Bernoulli Bandit (Dynamic MABB) process from the machine learning theory. We then propose an online learning algorithm with track-ability properties for computing an adaptive hopping policy. Simulations confirm that when the statistics of the external interference has a switching regime, the proposed solution outperforms the previous schemes in terms of both energy efficiency as well as two important KPIs for TSCH-based networks, i.e., PDR and latency. (shrink)

Some of the routing algorithms in mobile ad hoc networks use multiple paths simultaneously. These algorithms can attempt to find node-disjoint paths to achieve higher fault tolerance capability. By using node-disjoint paths, it is expected that the end-to-end delay in each path should be independent of each other. However, because of natural properties of wireless media and medium access mechanisms in ad hoc networks, the end-to-end delay between any source and destination depends on the pattern of communication in the neighborhood (...) region. In this case some of the intermediate nodes should be silent to reverence their neighbors and this matter increases the average of end-to-end delay. To avoid this problem, multi-path routing algorithms can use zone-disjoint paths instead of node-disjoint paths. Two routes with no pair of neighbor nodes are called zone-disjoint paths. In this paper we propose a new multi-path routing algorithm that selects zone-disjoint paths, using omni-directional antenna. We evaluate our algorithm in several different scenarios. The simulation results show that the proposed approach is very effective in decreasing delay and packet loss. -/- . (shrink)

Network coding is all about combining a variety of packets and forwarding as much packets as possible in each transmission operation. The network coding technique improves the throughput efficiency of multi‐hop wireless networks by taking advantage of the broadcast nature of wireless channels. However, there are some scenarios where the coding cannot be exploited due to the stochastic nature of the packet arrival process in the network. In these cases, the coding node faces 2 critical choices: forwarding the packet towards (...) the destination without coding, thereby sacrificing the advantage of network coding, or waiting for a while until a coding opportunity arises for the packets. Current research works have addressed this challenge for the case of a simple and restricted scheme called reverse carpooling where it is assumed that 2 flows with opposite directions arrive at the coding node. In this paper, the issue is explored in a general sense based on the COPE architecture requiring no assumption about flows in multi‐ hop wireless networks. In particular, we address this sequential decision making problem by using the solid framework of optimal stopping theory and derive the optimal stopping rule for the coding node to choose the optimal action to take, ie, to wait for more coding opportunity or to stop immediately (and send packet). Our simulation results validate the effectiveness of the derived optimal stopping rule and show that the proposed scheme outperforms existing methods in terms of network throughput and energy consumption. (shrink)

Any properly designed network coding technique can result in increased throughput and reliability of multi-hop wireless networks by taking advantage of the broadcast nature of wireless medium. In many inter-flow network coding schemes nodes are encouraged to overhear neighbour’s traffic in order to improve coding opportunities at the transmitter nodes. A study of these schemes reveal that some of the overheard packets are not useful for coding operation and thus this forced overhearing increases energy consumption dramatically. In this paper, we (...) formulate network coding aware sleep/wakeup scheduling as a semi Markov decision process (SMDP) that leads to an optimal node operation. In the proposed solution for SMDP, the network nodes learn when to switch off their transceiver in order to conserve energy and when to stay awake to overhear some useful packets. One of the main challenges... (shrink)

A common characteristic of all popular multi-path routing algorithms in Mobile Ad-hoc networks, such as AOMDV, is that the end to end delay is reduced by utilization of parallel paths. The competition between the neighboring nodes for obtaining a common channel in those parallel paths is the reason for end to end delay increment. In fact, due to medium access mechanism in wireless networks, such as CSMA/CA, data transmissions even through two Node Disjoint paths are not completely independent and each (...) path will affect the other one. In this paper we have modified the AODV protocol which results in selection of zone-disjoint paths, to the extent feasible, and as a result we achieve less end to end delay. The efficiency of the proposed protocol has been evaluated on different scenarios and there has been a noticeable improvement in the packet delivery ratio and also in the reduction of end-to-end delay comparing to AOMDV. (shrink)

Some of multi-path routing algorithms in MANETs use multiple paths simultaneously. These algorithms can attempt to find node-disjoint to achieve higher fault tolerance. By using node-disjoint paths, it is expected that the end-to-end delay in each case should be independent of each other. However, because of natural properties and medium access mechanisms in ad hoc networks, such as CSMA/CA, the endto-end delay between any source and destination depends on the pattern of communication in the neighborhood region. In this case some (...) of the intermediate nodes should be silent to reverence their neighbors and this matter increases the end-toend delay. To avoid this problem, multi-path routing algorithms can use zone-disjoint paths instead of node-disjoint paths. In this paper we propose a new multi-path routing algorithm that selects zone-disjoint paths, using omnidirectional antenna. We evaluate our algorithm in several different scenarios. The simulation results show that our approach is very effective in decreasing routing overhead and end-to-end delay. (shrink)

Directed Diffusion (DD) uses data aggregation to suppress data overhead however there is no guarantee that paths from nearby sources join after a few hops. In this paper, an efficient data-gathering protocol (EDAP) is proposed to address this problem by using a Virtual Sink (VS) node nearby the sources, which plays the role of sink node and broadcasts local interest messages and routes gathered data toward destination. Also, multiple paths are constructed between VS and the sink node, which leads to (...) load-balancing, and increase in the lifetime of the network. Simulation results show that in EDAP a significant amount of energy can be saved and the network lifetime will be increased considerably. (shrink)

—One of the promising applications of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) is monitoring of the human body for health concerns. For this purpose, a large number of small sensors are implanted in the human body. These sensors altogether provide a network of wireless sensors (WBANs) and monitor the vital signs and signals of the human body; these sensors will then send this information to the doctor. The most important application of the WBAN is the implementation of the monitoring network for patient (...) safety in the hospital environment. In this case, supporting patients’ mobility is one of the basic needs, which has been underestimated in recent studies. The problem that involves providing the required energy for the units used in this type of network is challenging; for this reason, sent/ received units with very low power consumption and with a very small radius are used in order to save energy. The resulting small sending range, leads to the lack of support for patients' mobility. In this paper, the AD HOC mode is suggested for use to establish a network and a multi-path routing algorithm, for the purpose of importing patients’ mobility in hospital setting. The results of the simulation show that in addition to supporting patients' mobility, the use of the proposed idea instead of previously presented protocols, reduces delays in data transmission and energy consumption; and it also increases the delivery rate depending on the destination and the lifetime of the network, while on the other hand, it increases routing overhead. (shrink)

Finding multi-path routes in ad hoc networks due to their grid topology seems to be a trivial task, but because of CSMA/CA effects in these networks found paths are not completely disjoint unless an appropriate algorithm have taken into account. If such an algorithm provided and designed carefully it could improve multi-path video transmission over these kinds of networks. By using node-disjoint paths, it is expected that the end-to-end delay and BER in each case should be independent of each other. (...) However, because of natural properties and medium access mechanisms in ad hoc networks the end-to-end delay and also BER between any source and destination depends on the pattern of communication in the neighborhood region. In this case some of the intermediate nodes should be silent to reverence their neighbors and this matter increases the end-to-end delay. To avoid this problem, multi-path routing algorithms can use zone-disjoint paths instead of node-disjoint paths. In this paper we demonstrated a new multi-path routing algorithm that selects zone-disjoint paths that in addition used for video multi-path transmission over ad hoc networks. It is shown that by using this new algorithm along with choosing an appropriate scheme for video transmission over discovered paths, our approach receives enhanced results comparing previously used algorithms. (shrink)

Some multi-path routing algorithm in MANET, simultaneously send information to the destination through several directions to reduce end-to-end delay. In all these algorithms, the sent traffic through a path affects the adjacent path and unintentionally increases the delay due to the use of adjacent paths. Because, there are repetitive competitions among neighboring nodes, in order to obtain the joint channel in adjacent paths. The represented algorithm in this study tries to discover the distinct paths between source and destination nodes with (...) using Omni directional antennas, to send information through these simultaneously. For this purpose, the number of active neighbors is counted in each direction with using a strategy. These criterions are effectively used to select routes. Proposed algorithm is based on AODV routing algorithm, and in the end it is compared with AOMDV, AODVM, and IZM-DSR algorithms which are multi-path routing algorithms based on AODV and DSR. Simulation results show that using the proposed algorithm creates a significant improvement in energy efficiency and reducing end-to-end delay. (shrink)

A fundamental challenge in virology research lies in effectively detecting malicious code. N-gram analysis has become a cornerstone technique, but selecting the most informative features, especially for longer n-grams, remains crucial for efficient detection. This paper addresses this challenge by introducing a novel feature extraction method that leverages both adjacent and non-adjacent bi-grams, providing a richer set of information for malicious code identification. Additionally, we propose a computationally efficient feature selection approach that utilizes a genetic algorithm combined with Boosting principles. (...) Our experimental results show that this detection system significantly outperforms existing methods in virus detection accuracy. The system improves detection accuracy by 15% and reduces false positives by 20% compared to traditional n-gram techniques. Additionally, it cuts computational overhead by about 30%, making it suitable for real-time applications. These advancements demonstrate the effectiveness and practicality of our approach. Future research will focus on applying our methods to polymorphic viruses and other malware to further enhance their robustness and applicability. (shrink)

Recently, network coding emerged as a promising technology that can provide significant improvements in throughput and energy efficiency of wireless networks. Many implementations of network coding in wireless networks, such as COPE, encourage nodes to overhear to improve the coding opportunities so that they can create better opportunities for coding at the transmitter node through overhearing more packages. In this paper, we have shown that all overheard packets are not necessarily useful for coding; thus, a node can go to sleep (...) mode and shutdown the transceiver to have low power consumption. In this approach, nodes use RL mechanism for duty cycling that is aware of network coding; thereby high throughput and low power consumption can be achieved. In this paper, the duty cycling decision problem is formulated as a Markov decision process. The objective is to maximize the expected total … . (shrink)

Network coding is used to improve the throughput of communication networks. In this technique, the intermediate nodes mix packets to increase the information content of each transmission. For each flow, a coding pattern is defined as a set of flows that can be coded together. Finding a suitable coding pattern is a challenge due to much complexity. In this paper, we propose an algorithm to find a suitable coding pattern in intermediate nodes by mapping this problem onto maximum-weight clique. Also, (...) we described time complexity of our algorithm in details. Simulation results show that our proposed method can achieve better performance in terms of throughput and end-to-end delay by increasing coding opportunities. (shrink)

In TSCH, which is a MAC mechanism set of the IEEE 802.15.4e amendment, calculation, construction, and maintenance of the packet transmission schedules are not defined. Moreover, to ensure optimal throughput, most of the existing scheduling methods are based on the assumption that instantaneous and accurate Channel State Information (CSI) is available. However, due to the inevitable errors in the channel estimation process, this assumption cannot be materialized in many practical scenarios. In this paper, we propose two alternative and realistic approaches. (...) In our first approach, we assume that only the statistical knowledge of CSI is available a priori. Armed with this knowledge, the average packet rate on each link is computed and then, using the results, the throughput-optimal schedule for the assignment of (slot-frame) cells to links can be formulated as a max-weight bipartite matching problem, which can be solved efficiently using the well-known Hungarian algorithm. In the second approach, we assume that no CSI knowledge (even statistical) is available at the design stage. For this zero-knowledge setting, we introduce a machine learning-based algorithm by formally modeling the scheduling problem in terms of a combinatorial multi-armed bandit (CMAB) process. Our CMAB-based scheme is widely applicable to many real operational environments, thanks to its reduced reliance on design-time knowledge. Simulation results show that the average throughput obtained by the statistical CSI-based method is within the margin of 15% from the theoretical upper bound associated with perfect instantaneous CSI. The aforesaid margin is around 18% for our learning-theoretic solution. (shrink)

An ad hoc network is comprised of mobile hosts without any wired infrastructure support. Multipath routing allows the establishment of multiple paths between a source and a destination. It distributes traffic among multiple paths instead of routing all the traffics along a single path. In this paper, we propose a new multipath routing protocol that uses all discovered paths simultaneously for transmitting data, by using this approach data packets are balanced over discovered paths and energy consumption is distributed across many (...) nodes through network. (shrink)

The scientific understanding of the mind and consciousness is limited by the lack of knowledge on the missing pieces of this complex puzzle. However, the philosophy and the current physical and material sciences have made great strides in understanding the evolutionary processes of the mind, from the metaphysical and Meta universal layers to the physical, chemical, biological, psychological, and social layers. The complexity of the human mind and the subjective nature of consciousness make it difficult to define and study empirically. (...) Some scientists argue that self-consciousness is an emergent property of the brain, arising from the interaction of various cognitive processes such as memory, perception, and language. There is a significant debate on this line of research, with no clear consensus. Some experts believe that self-consciousness in AI is theoretically possible, as it could emerge from complex systems of neural networks and machine learning algorithms. However, others argue that self-consciousness requires a level of subjective experience and awareness that may be difficult or impossible to replicate in artificial systems. Researchers from various disciplines, including physics, chemistry, biology, brain science, psychology, linguistics, and computer science, have been working together to solve this mystery. The question that how far self-consciousness is possible to be answered in science depends on our understanding of what constitutes self-consciousness and how it arises. While AI systems have made significant advances in areas such as natural language processing, computer vision, and decision making, they still lack the capacity for subjective experience, introspection, and self-awareness that are commonly associated with self-consciousness. In this work the concept of self-consciousness, or the awareness of one's own existence and mental states, has been discussed from different angle. Despite significant advancements in cognitive science and neurobiology, the nature and origins of self-consciousness remain elusive. (shrink)

The issue of the article is whether the experience of Beauty or love in Plato can be considered as some kind of religious experience. First, the article describes different views on the religious experience. Then it deals with Plato's view on beauty and love and their relationship. finally, demonstrating the divinity of Beauty in Plato, the article shows that if religious experience is an encounter of the experiencer with the divine being, or in religious term God, that manifests itself in (...) various forms, and that encounter is accompanied by a direct conscious of the divine being, then the experience of Beauty or love in Plato can be considered as a kind of religious experience. The article merely claims that the experience of Beauty or love is an instance of religious experience, and it does not have any epistemological view on religious experience, however, any epistemological view on religious experience logically includes the experience of Beauty or love. -/- Key words: religious experience, beauty, love, divinity, Plato . (shrink)

The issue of the article is defending the claim that the experience of Beauty can be considered the numinous experience. First, the article explains Otto’s view on numinous experiences. Then it explains Plato’s view on Beauty and love. Finally, comparing the two views, the article shows that the experience of Beauty or Platonic love can be considered the numinous experience. Because, firstly, the experience of Beauty or Platonic love is an awareness of a “wholly other” being, which possesses all or (...) at least the most prominent features of the numinous awareness. Secondly, Beauty as the object of this awareness also possesses all or at least the most prominent features of the numen. Therefore, the experience of Beauty is the very experience of the numen. -/- Keywords religious experience, numinous experience, the numen, Beauty, love, Plato, and Otto. (shrink)

In this paper, the philosophical concept of birth will be discussed from an uncommon point of view presented by M. A. Taheri.